Instrumental Conditioning
In Pavlovian conditioning the learning organism plays a purely passive role insofar as the delivery of the conditional and unconditional stimulus is concerned. In instrumental conditioning the organism plays a morbr less active role as far as the obtaining of reward or the avoidance of punishment i concerned. In a true sense the organism literally operates upon its environment hence also the name operant conditioning as coined by B.F.Skinner (1938).
Basic procedures in instrumental conditioning
Three basic features that characterize most instrumental conditioning experiments can be identified. First of all, the typical experimental plan uses procedures that involve, reward or punishment they being termed as reinforcers or reinforcing stimuli and the process being called reinforcement. The second, experimental plan can lead an organism to either produce or withhold some specified response. Thir4, a discriminative cue is ‘used in some experimental plan but not in others. A discriminative cue is a stimulus of some sort that tells the organism, in effect, when reinforcement can be obtained and when it cannot be obtained. It sets the appropriate occasion for the behavior that leads to reinforcement.
(1) Reward training
In this experiment a hungry white rat is placed in a twelve inches square box. This is a sound proof box known as Skinners box. It is also at times referred to as “experimental box”. In essence, the general procedures associated is that of simple reward training. The course of learning is marked much by trial and error. In the Skinner box experiment the rat at first accidentally presses the lever but when he discovers the reward associated with the pressing of the lever his lever pressing becomes intentional, directed towards the attainment of positive reinforcement.
(2) Discrimination training
The apparatus set up is the same as that in reward training with the addition of a small white light located in the wall of the box. This is referred to as the discriminative cue. In essence, the discriminative cue sets the occasion for the obtaining of reward and withholding the same. The process of experimental extension and that of spontaneous recovery can also be experimentally demonstrated via discriminative training.
(3) Escape training
In this type of training a dog is placed in one compartment of a two-compartment box. The two compartments are separated by a door, which can slide up and down. The door is arranged such that it can be dropped part way through a slot in the floor, creating a hurdle over which the dog can jump from the first compartment into the second. Both compartments are equipped with floors made of stainless steel bars through which an electric current is passed. The bars are wired in such a way that when current is passed through them a shock of moderate intensity is delivered to the dog through the dogs feet. At some time determined by the experimenter, the door drops and, at the same instance, current is turned on in the compartment the dog isin. The shock continues until the dog jumps over tl hurdle and reaches the ‘safe’ compartment, in which the shock is not present. The door closes and the dog ‘rests’ until the experimenter again drops the door and turns on the shock in the second compartment. The dog must then jump the hurdle once again, moving back to the original compartment, which is now safe. This process continues for as many trials as the experimenter may call for.
It might seen reasonable to think of escape training as a rather special case of reward training, on the assumption that escaping a noxious stimulus like shock is,warding.
(4) Avoidance learning
The same appatus used in the escape training paradigm is used with a few modifications. An easily visible overhead light is put in each compartment. This light act as a discriminative cue signaling the onset of electric shock within a specified period of ten seconds The dog can, on the signalling jump to the safe.compartment to avoid the punishing stimuli. Thus, this discriminative cue sets the occasion for the dog’s response.
An analogue can be drawn with discrimination training. The dog slowly begins to understand the cue provided by the light and comes to learn the appropriate occasion for escaping a punishing stimuli.
This procedure can also be labelled as a “two way active avoidance training” since the dog must not only actively produces a response to avoid punishment, but also, at the same time jumps across the hurdle separating the two compartments, each of which is “dangerous” at specified times. If only one compartment is permanently unsafe and the other permanently safe then we can label this procedure as “one-way active avoidance training’
(5) Punishment training
This training requires an organism to either withhold or omit a response in order to obtain reward or avoid punishment. In this type of training we continue beyond the point where reward training is accomplished with a few modifications in the Skinner box. The lever is to be connected to an electricity regulating device so that mild current can be passed on to the lever when required. Beyond the junction of reward training lever pressing is associated with reward as well as punishment in the form of mild electric shocks. The organism will now have to learn to withhold a rewarding response to avoid shock. This is an approach-avoidance conflict. It chooses the avoidance side and becomes passive to lever pressing activity. This passiveness as a result of punishment training can be also called “passive avoidance learning”
(6) Omission training
This is more or less similar to punishment training other than the basis of obtaining reinforcement. Reinforcement is based on a positive reward rather than avoidance due to a punishing stimulus. Here also we continue beyond the point where reward training was accomplished. Thereafter we reverse the procedure in the sense that lever pressings are no longer reinforced but failure to do so is. This can be done without any rules binding the process. The outcome is that the rat will learn to withhold or omit the lever pressing response in order to assure a continued flow of food pellets.
(8) Free Vs Controlled Responding
Instrumental conditioning can involve either of these two procedures. These at times are also referred to as free-operant and discrete-trial procedures respectively. The difference between the two is based on the controls of the opportunity to make the instrumental behavior in question. It is termed free-operant when the subject controls the opportunity to make the instrumental behavior and when the experimenter controls the same it is’ termed as discrete-trial or controlled responding.
In Pavlovian conditioning the learning organism plays a purely passive role insofar as the delivery of the conditional and unconditional stimulus is concerned. In instrumental conditioning the organism plays a morbr less active role as far as the obtaining of reward or the avoidance of punishment i concerned. In a true sense the organism literally operates upon its environment hence also the name operant conditioning as coined by B.F.Skinner (1938).
Basic procedures in instrumental conditioning
Three basic features that characterize most instrumental conditioning experiments can be identified. First of all, the typical experimental plan uses procedures that involve, reward or punishment they being termed as reinforcers or reinforcing stimuli and the process being called reinforcement. The second, experimental plan can lead an organism to either produce or withhold some specified response. Thir4, a discriminative cue is ‘used in some experimental plan but not in others. A discriminative cue is a stimulus of some sort that tells the organism, in effect, when reinforcement can be obtained and when it cannot be obtained. It sets the appropriate occasion for the behavior that leads to reinforcement.
(1) Reward training
In this experiment a hungry white rat is placed in a twelve inches square box. This is a sound proof box known as Skinners box. It is also at times referred to as “experimental box”. In essence, the general procedures associated is that of simple reward training. The course of learning is marked much by trial and error. In the Skinner box experiment the rat at first accidentally presses the lever but when he discovers the reward associated with the pressing of the lever his lever pressing becomes intentional, directed towards the attainment of positive reinforcement.
(2) Discrimination training
The apparatus set up is the same as that in reward training with the addition of a small white light located in the wall of the box. This is referred to as the discriminative cue. In essence, the discriminative cue sets the occasion for the obtaining of reward and withholding the same. The process of experimental extension and that of spontaneous recovery can also be experimentally demonstrated via discriminative training.
(3) Escape training
In this type of training a dog is placed in one compartment of a two-compartment box. The two compartments are separated by a door, which can slide up and down. The door is arranged such that it can be dropped part way through a slot in the floor, creating a hurdle over which the dog can jump from the first compartment into the second. Both compartments are equipped with floors made of stainless steel bars through which an electric current is passed. The bars are wired in such a way that when current is passed through them a shock of moderate intensity is delivered to the dog through the dogs feet. At some time determined by the experimenter, the door drops and, at the same instance, current is turned on in the compartment the dog isin. The shock continues until the dog jumps over tl hurdle and reaches the ‘safe’ compartment, in which the shock is not present. The door closes and the dog ‘rests’ until the experimenter again drops the door and turns on the shock in the second compartment. The dog must then jump the hurdle once again, moving back to the original compartment, which is now safe. This process continues for as many trials as the experimenter may call for.
It might seen reasonable to think of escape training as a rather special case of reward training, on the assumption that escaping a noxious stimulus like shock is,warding.
(4) Avoidance learning
The same appatus used in the escape training paradigm is used with a few modifications. An easily visible overhead light is put in each compartment. This light act as a discriminative cue signaling the onset of electric shock within a specified period of ten seconds The dog can, on the signalling jump to the safe.compartment to avoid the punishing stimuli. Thus, this discriminative cue sets the occasion for the dog’s response.
An analogue can be drawn with discrimination training. The dog slowly begins to understand the cue provided by the light and comes to learn the appropriate occasion for escaping a punishing stimuli.
This procedure can also be labelled as a “two way active avoidance training” since the dog must not only actively produces a response to avoid punishment, but also, at the same time jumps across the hurdle separating the two compartments, each of which is “dangerous” at specified times. If only one compartment is permanently unsafe and the other permanently safe then we can label this procedure as “one-way active avoidance training’
(5) Punishment training
This training requires an organism to either withhold or omit a response in order to obtain reward or avoid punishment. In this type of training we continue beyond the point where reward training is accomplished with a few modifications in the Skinner box. The lever is to be connected to an electricity regulating device so that mild current can be passed on to the lever when required. Beyond the junction of reward training lever pressing is associated with reward as well as punishment in the form of mild electric shocks. The organism will now have to learn to withhold a rewarding response to avoid shock. This is an approach-avoidance conflict. It chooses the avoidance side and becomes passive to lever pressing activity. This passiveness as a result of punishment training can be also called “passive avoidance learning”
(6) Omission training
This is more or less similar to punishment training other than the basis of obtaining reinforcement. Reinforcement is based on a positive reward rather than avoidance due to a punishing stimulus. Here also we continue beyond the point where reward training was accomplished. Thereafter we reverse the procedure in the sense that lever pressings are no longer reinforced but failure to do so is. This can be done without any rules binding the process. The outcome is that the rat will learn to withhold or omit the lever pressing response in order to assure a continued flow of food pellets.
(8) Free Vs Controlled Responding
Instrumental conditioning can involve either of these two procedures. These at times are also referred to as free-operant and discrete-trial procedures respectively. The difference between the two is based on the controls of the opportunity to make the instrumental behavior in question. It is termed free-operant when the subject controls the opportunity to make the instrumental behavior and when the experimenter controls the same it is’ termed as discrete-trial or controlled responding.
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